The Final Question
Theories – The Final Question
Theory = Purple
Theorist = Black
Active/passive audiences
Hypodermic Needle Theory
Cohen (Moral Panics)
Desensitisation
Mulvey Male Gaze
Anderson Media violence on youth
Gauntlett (Media effects is outdated) - Counter-argument
Blumler and Katz Uses and Gratifications - Counter-argument
Jenkins Collaboration and participatory culture - Counter-argument
Hypodermic Needle Theory
- Theorises that audiences are essentially passive, and will readily absorb messages relayed to them by the media.
- This means that, after watching a violent horror film, or playing a violent POV shooter, audience members will be negatively influenced.
- This presupposes that audiences are passive (unable to reject media messages) rather than active (they make sense of media messages through personal and social contexts).
Remember to watch this clip:
Moral Panic
In 1972, Stanley Cohen developed the moral panic theory. This encompassed ideas of folk devils in society.
Moral panic happens when “a condition, episode, person or group of persons emerges to become defined as a threat to societal values and interests”.
His research was based on the mods and rockers in the 1960s, but has since been applied to the media.
The Stages of Moral Panic
- Someone, something or a group are defined as a threat to social norms or community interests
- The threat is then depicted in a simple and recognisable symbol/form by the media
- The portrayal of this symbol rouses public concern
- There is a response from authorities and policy makers
- The moral panic over the issue results in social changes within the community
The consequences of Moral Panic
- Mary Whitehouse spearheads a campaign against screen violence; she gains wide support
- BBFC starts to censor films or ban them outright; certification becomes stricter
- Fewer people are able to consume violent films
- Have there been any contemporary trends that link to this theory? E.g. Blue Whale Challenge
Killer Clown trend - Causes moral panic
Desensitisation
This theory suggests that audiences reactions are weaker towards their exposure to extreme violence, sex and death.
This decrease in fear and sensitivity links to the extreme rise of societal violence and behaviours.
Anderson (Media violence and youth)
- Anderson’s study says exposure to Media Violence increases the likelihood of aggressive violent behaviour in young people
- The study was based on research carried out on the effects of media violence in TV, Film, Music and Video Games
- It says two of the main ways aggressive or violent behaviour is seen in young people:
-Desensitisation
-Imitation (of violent behaviour) - The study says that the degree to which media affects aggression and violence in young people can depend on other factors such as their social environment (e.g. parental supervision)
- No one is immune to the effects of media violence
Mulvey and the Male Gaze:
A feminist perspective on Media Effects
- Gaze = how an audience views people that have been presented
- How men look at women, how women look at themselves, how women look at other women.
- Mulvey believes that audiences have to ‘view’ characters from the perspective of a heterosexual male and that the camera is always of that viewpoint. Cameras linger on female curves and the female body.
- Women are relegated to the status of an object and are heavily sexualised.
Me Too - movement
- Woman speaking out about how men have treated them at work.
Case Studies to support these theories
The Scream Killings
In 2001, 24 year old Thierry Jaradin lured a teenage neighbour (Allison Cambier) to his home.
After declaring his love for her, she rejected his advances and so he went to his bathroom and returned wearing a Halloween mask (the scream mask) and a kitchen knife.
He stabbed Cambier 30 times, laid her mutilated body on his bed, placed a rose in her lifeless hand and phoned his father and a colleague to confess. The mask Jaradin had worn during his crime was a replica of one that had haunted moviegoers just three years earlier.
Jaradin, who was ultimately sentenced to life in prison, told investigators his crime was premeditated and that he'd been inspired by the movie.
Aurora, Colorado shooting
In 2012, during a midnight screening of The Dark Knight Rises, James Holmes set off tear gas grenades and shot into the audience with multiple firearms. He claimed to be influenced by the film and killed twelve people, whilst injuring 70 others.
The Columbine Massacre
The Columbine Massacre in 1999 – a high school shooting influenced by POV shooter games such as Doom and 3D Wolfenstein
Theory - Example - Case Study
Anderson - youth + violence - Columbine shooting
Moral Panic, Hypodermic Needle, Anderson - Scream Killings
Desensitisation, Anderson, Hypodermic Needle - Colorado Shooting
Anderson, Desensitisation - Brevik
Hypodermic - 2013 Lanza
Cohen - Moral Panics
Counter-arguments to the effects debate
- Uses and Grats theories
David Gauntlett:
He is a huge advocate for Media Studies and challenges the media effects model and its respective theories.
- Gauntlett states there are “10 things wrong with the media ‘effects’ model”
- You don’t need to know all 10! Instead, you will learn 5 arguments.
The effects model treats children as inadequate (it undermines their capabilities)
Research has been conducted which seeks to establish what children can do and understand from mass media. Outcomes have highlighted that children can talk intelligently and negatively about the mass media. The study included children as young as 7.
This challenges the hypodermic syringe theory, Anderson’s theory and to an extent children being passive audiences
The effects model tackles social problems ‘backwards’
Gauntlett claims that there is a mistake of looking at individuals, rather than society, in relation to the mass media.
Just because a group of individuals are violent, there is no need to generalise that ALL youths are violent.
The effects model assumes superiority to the masses
People think that media is influential on others and that it could never influence themselves. Further, it is wrong to believe that uneducated, lower class individuals are more heavily affected by media content.
The effects model is selective in its criticisms of media depictions of violence
The acts of violence which appear on a daily basis on the news and in serious factual programmes are seen as somehow exempt. Instead, media depictions of ‘violence’, which the effects model typically condemns are limited to fictional productions.
Counter-arguments - Gauntlett
- Do not generalise
- Youth
- Individuals not whole groups
- Do not assume others are more influenced than you are
- Real acts of violence = News
Uses + Grats
Positive
- Choices
- Informed
- Entertained (Pleasure)
- Escape
Counter-arguments
Uses and Gratifications Theory: choice and being active
This theory argues that we choose how to consume the media and the following categories are summaries:
- Entertained
- Educated
- Escape
- Informed
- A sense of a personal identity and connection (some dramas do this) - social media
Don’t forget your Regulatory Bodies!
A number of regulatory bodies operate within the UK.
For television, there is OfCom (The Office of Communications). Since 2004, they have regulated all broadcast content across UK television channels.
It has a statutory duty to represent the interests of citizens and consumers by promoting competition and protecting the public from harmful or offensive material.
Complaints to OfCom might result in a show, or segment of a show, being pulled off air.
Regulatory Bodies
- Ofcom
VSCGRA - Games- ASA
- BBFC
- IPSO
- W3C
Counter Arguments
- Why is the presence of different regulatory bodies a valid counter-argument against the 'effects/ negative effects' of different media.
Magazines and newspapers - IPSO code of practice
Film- BBFC- age ratings - guide/ suitable- films at the cinema
OFCOM- tv and radio (9pm watershed) radio- no offensive language
Internet and social media online safety act April 2025- OFCOM
- Regulatory bodies ensure that audiences are protected and that media organisations are kept in check
- By having regulatory bodies
Livingstone and Lunt - Regulation
Regulation = rules / control.
They think regulation of the media is hard.
Often to do with the audience from harm.
Regulators have to try and balance protecting people with offering them choice.
Technology has made regulation much harder.
Downloading, streaming, piracy, you tube ETC means people can bypass controls like age certificates.
The vast nature of the internet (EG billions of users) makes it impossible to control.
Powerful companies can avoid regulations.
Copyright
IDENTITY THEORY
Counter argument for copyright
Gauntlett discusses how the media influences self-identity and self-understanding. He argues that the media provides tools that shape how we understand ourselves and the world.
His research found that people use media content to construct their identities and explore the diverse ways they could be.
Counterargument, because he is saying that we use existing media to construct our own identity and although this could be misconstrued as copyright, actually it’s more about being influenced and inspired.
Collaboration and participatory culture (Jenkins):
The theory of participatory culture describes how people can work together to create and share content in online communities.
Rather than berating people for ‘breaching copyright’, we should create a more collaborative culture and encourage prosumers.
9. 'It is impossible to stop people breaking copyright laws in the digital age.'
Discuss this statement using your knowledge about media regulation, production and the distribution of digital products.
Use examples to support your answer. [20]
The Copyright law is there to prevent a media product, idea or brand from being used without permission from the producer. For example, if somebody accessed music without permission from the owner then this goes against the copyright law.
You could agree with the statement because of the theory which links to copyright because...
- With technological advancements like illegal streaming, it has become almost impossible to prevent people using assets like VPNs.
- There is various platforms like where you can stream new movies without paying that have just been released in cinemas.
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